Diferenças entre edições de "Inflação"

Da Thinkfn
Linha 21: Linha 21:
  
 
==Causas==
 
==Causas==
Muita da literatura económica concerne a questão do que é que causa a inflação e qual é o efeito que esta tem. Há várias escolas de pensamento sobre as causas da inflação. A maioria pode ser dividida em duas grandes áreas: teorias qualitativas da inflação e teorias quantitativas da inflação. Muitas teorias da inflação combinam ambas as áreas. A teoria qualitativa da inflação tem por base a expectativa de um vendedor ao aceitar moeda, de que será capaz de trocar essa moeda mais tarde por bens que lhe interessem como comprador. A teoria quantitativa da inflação assenta na equação da oferta de moeda, da sua velocidade e das trocas de moeda. [[Adam Smith]] e [[David Hume]] propuseram uma teoria quantitativa da inflação para o dinheiro e uma teoria qualitativa da inflação para a produção.
+
Muita da literatura económica concerne a questão do que é que causa a inflação e qual é o efeito que esta tem. Há várias escolas de pensamento sobre as causas da inflação. A maioria pode ser dividida em duas grandes áreas: teorias qualitativas e teorias quantitativas. Muitas teorias combinam ambas as áreas. A teoria qualitativa da inflação tem por base a expectativa do vendedor, ao aceitar moeda, de que será capaz de trocar essa moeda mais tarde por bens que lhe interessem como comprador. A teoria quantitativa da inflação assenta na equação da oferta de moeda, da sua velocidade e das trocas de moeda. [[Adam Smith]] e [[David Hume]] propuseram uma teoria quantitativa da inflação para o dinheiro e uma teoria qualitativa da inflação para a produção.
  
 
Existe um consenso generalizado entre os economistas de que, a longo prazo, a inflação é essencialmente um fenómeno monetário. <ref>{{cite web
 
Existe um consenso generalizado entre os economistas de que, a longo prazo, a inflação é essencialmente um fenómeno monetário. <ref>{{cite web
Linha 46: Linha 46:
 
  | date = 1 Jul 2004
 
  | date = 1 Jul 2004
 
  | publisher = Banco Central Europeu
 
  | publisher = Banco Central Europeu
  | language = en}}</ref> No entanto, a curto e médio prazo a inflação pode ser afectada por pressões da oferta e da procura na economia, e influenciada pela elasticidade relativa dos salários, preços e [[Taxa de juro|taxas de juro]]. Uma questão central no debate entre as escolas monetarista e Keynesiana é se os efeitos de curto-prazo duram o suficiente para serem importantes. No [[monetarismo]] os preços e salários ajustam-se com rapidez suficiente para tornar os restantes factores um mero comportamento marginal da linha geral de tendência. Na perspectiva [[Economia Keynesiana|Keynesiana]], os preços e salários ajustam-se a taxas diferentes, e estas diferenças têm efeitos suficientes no ''output'' real para serem de "longo-prazo" na perspectiva das pessoas numa economia.
+
  | language = en}}</ref> No entanto, a curto e médio prazo, pode ser afectada por pressões da oferta e da procura na economia, e influenciada pela elasticidade relativa dos salários, preços e [[Taxa de juro|taxas de juro]]. Uma questão central no debate entre as escolas monetarista e Keynesiana é se os efeitos de curto-prazo duram o suficiente para serem importantes. No [[monetarismo]] os preços e salários ajustam-se com rapidez suficiente para tornar os restantes factores um mero comportamento marginal da linha geral de tendência. Na perspectiva [[Economia Keynesiana|Keynesiana]], os preços e salários ajustam-se a taxas diferentes, e estas diferenças têm efeitos suficientes no ''output'' real para serem de "longo-prazo" na perspectiva das pessoas numa economia.
  
<!--==Related definitions==
+
<!--==Effects==
The term "inflation" usually refers to a measured rise in a broad price index that represents the overall level of prices in goods and services in the economy.  [[Consumer Price Index]] (CPI) and the [[Personal consumption expenditures price index|Personal Consumption Expenditures Price Index]] (PCEPI) are two examples of broad price indices. The term inflation may also be used to describe the rising level of prices in a narrow set of assets, goods or services within the economy, such as [[commodity|commodities]], which include food, fuel, metals, [[financial asset]]s such as stocks and real estate, and service industries such as health care. The [[Reuters-CRB Index]] (CCI), the [[Producer Price Index]], and [[Employment Cost Index]] (ECI) are examples of narrow price indices used to measure price inflation in particular sectors of the economy. [[Core inflation]] is a measure of price fluctuations in a sub-set of the broad price index which excludes food and energy prices. The [[Federal Reserve Board]] uses the core inflation rate to measure overall inflation, eliminating food and energy prices to mitigate against short term price fluctuations that could distort estimates of future long term inflation trends in the general economy.<ref>{{citation |last=Kiley |first=Michael J. |title=Estimating the common trend rate of inflation for consumer prices and consumer prices excluding food and energy prices |work=Finance and Economic Discussion Series |publisher=Federal Reserve Board |publication-date=2008 |url=http://www.federalreserve.gov/Pubs/feds/2008/200838/200838pap.pdf }}</ref>
+
 
+
Related economic concepts include: [[deflation (economics)|deflation]], a fall in the general price level; [[disinflation]], a decrease in the rate of inflation; [[hyperinflation]], an out-of-control inflationary spiral; [[stagflation]], a combination of inflation, slow economic growth and rising unemployment; and [[reflation]], which is an attempt to raise the general level of prices to counteract deflationary pressures.
+
 
+
==Measures==
+
[[Image:US Historical Inflation Ancient.svg|thumb|Annual inflation rates in the U.S., 1666-2004.]]
+
Inflation is usually measured by calculating the [[inflation rate]] of a price index, usually the [[Consumer Price Index]].<ref>Robert Hall and John Taylor (1986), ''Macroeconomics: Theory, Performance, and Policy'', page 5. ISBN 039395398X.</ref><ref>Blanchard (2000), ''op. cit.''</ref><ref>Barro (1993), ''op. cit.''</ref> The Consumer Price Index measures prices of a selection of goods and services purchased by a "typical consumer".<ref>{{Harvnb|Mankiw|2002|p=22-32}}</ref> The inflation rate is the percentage rate of change of a price index over time.
+
+
For example, in January 2007, the U.S. Consumer Price Index was 202.416, and in January 2008 it was 211.080. The formula for calculating the annual percentage rate inflation in the CPI over the course of 2007 is
+
:<math>\left(\frac{211.080-202.416}{202.416}\right)=4.28%</math>
+
The resulting inflation rate for the CPI in this one year period is 4.28%, meaning the general level of prices for typical U.S. consumers rose by approximately four percent in 2007.<ref>The numbers reported here refer to the US Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers, All Items, series CPIAUCNS, from base level 100 in base year 1982. They were downloaded from the [http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/CPIAUCNS?cid=9 FRED database] at the [[Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis]] on August 8, 2008.</ref>
+
 
+
Other widely used price indices for calculating price inflation include the following:
+
*'''[[Cost-of-living index|Cost-of-living indices]]''' (COLI) are indices similar to the CPI which are often used to adjust fixed incomes and contractual incomes to maintain the [[real versus nominal value|real value]] of those incomes.
+
*'''[[Producer price index|Producer price indices]]''' (PPIs) which measures average changes in prices received by domestic producers for their output. This differs from the CPI in that price subsidization, profits, and taxes may cause the amount received by the producer to differ from what the consumer paid. There is also typically a delay between an increase in the PPI and any eventual increase in the CPI. Producer price index measures the pressure being put on producers by the costs of their raw materials. This could be "passed on" to consumers, or it could be absorbed by profits, or offset by increasing productivity. In India and the United States, an earlier version of the PPI was called the [[Wholesale price index|Wholesale Price Index]].
+
*'''[[Commodity price index|Commodity price indices]]''', which measure the price of a selection of commodities. In the present commodity price indices are weighted by the relative importance of the components to the "all in" cost of an employee.
+
*'''[[Core inflation|Core price indices]]''': because food and oil prices can change quickly due to changes in supply and demand conditions in the food and oil markets, it can be difficult to detect the long run trend in price levels when those prices are included. Therefore most [[List of national and international statistical services|statistical agencies]] also report a measure of 'core inflation', which removes the most volatile components (such as food and oil) from a broad price index like the CPI. Because core inflation is less affected by short run supply and demand conditions in specific markets, [[central bank]]s rely on it to better measure the inflationary impact of current [[monetary policy]].
+
 
+
Other common measures of inflation are:
+
*'''[[GDP deflator]]''' is a measure of the price of all the goods and services included in [[Gross Domestic Product]] (GDP). The US Commerce Department publishes a deflator series for US GDP, defined as its nominal GDP measure divided by its real GDP measure.
+
*'''Regional inflation''' The Bureau of Labor Statistics breaks down CPI-U calculations down to different regions of the US.
+
*'''Historical inflation''' Before collecting consistent econometric data became standard for governments, and for the purpose of comparing absolute, rather than relative standards of living, various economists have calculated imputed inflation figures. Most inflation data before the early 20th century is imputed based on the known costs of goods, rather than compiled at the time. It is also used to adjust for the differences in real standard of living for the presence of technology.
+
*'''[[Assets inflation|Asset price inflation]]''' is an undue increase in the prices of real or financial assets, such as [[stock]] (equity) and [[real estate]]. While there is no widely-accepted index of this type, some central bankers have suggested that it would be better to aim at stabilizing a wider general price level inflation measure that includes some asset prices, instead of stabilizing CPI or core inflation only. The reason is that by raising interest rates when stock prices or real estate prices rise, and lowering them when these asset prices fall, central banks might be more successful in avoiding [[economic bubble|bubbles]] and crashes in asset prices.{{Dubious|date=November 2008}}
+
 
+
===Issues in measuring===
+
Measuring inflation in an economy requires objective means of differentiating changes in nominal prices on a common set of goods and services, and distinguishing them from those price shifts resulting from changes in value such as volume, quality, or performance. For example, if the price of a 10&nbsp;oz. can of corn changes from $0.90 to $1.00 over the course of a year, with no change in quality, then this price difference represents inflation. This single price change would not, however, represent general inflation in an overall economy. To measure overall inflation, the price change of a large "basket" of representative goods and services is measured. This is the purpose of a [[price index]], which is the combined price of a "basket" of many goods and services. The combined price is the sum of the weighted average prices of items in the "basket". A weighted price is calculated by multiplying the unit price of an item to the number of those items the average consumer purchases. Weighted pricing is a necessary means to measuring the impact of individual unit price changes on the economy's overall inflation. The Consumer Price Index, for example, uses data collected by surveying households to determine what proportion of the typical consumer's overall spending is spent on specific goods and services, and weights the average prices of those items accordingly. Those weighted average prices are combined to calculate the overall price. To better relate price changes over time, indexes typically choose a "base year" price and assign it a value of 100. Index prices in subsequent years are then expressed in relation to the base year price.<ref name=Taylor/>
+
 
+
Inflation measures are often modified over time, either for the relative weight of goods in the basket, or in the way in which goods and services from the present are compared with goods and services from the past. Adjustments are necessary over time because the types of goods and services purchased by 'typical consumers' changes over time. New products may be introduced, older products disappear, the quality of existing products may change, and consumer preferences can shift. Both the sorts of goods and services which are included in the "basket" and the weighted price used in inflation measures will be changed over time in order to keep pace with the changing marketplace.
+
 
+
Inflation numbers are often [[seasonally adjusted]] in order to differentiate expected cyclical cost shifts. For example, home heating costs are expected to rise in colder months, and seasonal adjustments are often used when measuring for inflation to compensate for cyclical spikes in energy or fuel demand. Inflation numbers may be averaged or otherwise subjected to statistical techniques in order to remove [[statistical noise]] and [[Volatility (finance)|volatility]] of individual prices.
+
 
+
When looking at inflation economic institutions may focus only on certain kinds of prices, or ''special indices'', such as the [[core inflation|core inflation index]] which is used by central banks to formulate [[monetary policy]].
+
 
+
==Effects==
+
 
{{Prose|date=September 2008}}
 
{{Prose|date=September 2008}}
 
[[Image:Inflation-1923.jpg|thumb|right|[[Inflation in the Weimar Republic|1923 Weimar Republic inflation]]: A [[Weimar Republic|German]] woman feeding a stove with [[German Papiermark|Papiermarks]], which burned longer than the amount of firewood people could buy with them.]]
 
[[Image:Inflation-1923.jpg|thumb|right|[[Inflation in the Weimar Republic|1923 Weimar Republic inflation]]: A [[Weimar Republic|German]] woman feeding a stove with [[German Papiermark|Papiermarks]], which burned longer than the amount of firewood people could buy with them.]]
Linha 188: Linha 154:
 
| format = PDF
 
| format = PDF
 
}}</ref> Unlike the Quantity Theory of classical political economy, the backing theory argues that issuing authorities can issue money without causing inflation so long as the money issuer has sufficient assets to cover redemptions.
 
}}</ref> Unlike the Quantity Theory of classical political economy, the backing theory argues that issuing authorities can issue money without causing inflation so long as the money issuer has sufficient assets to cover redemptions.
 +
 +
==Related definitions==
 +
The term "inflation" usually refers to a measured rise in a broad price index that represents the overall level of prices in goods and services in the economy.  [[Consumer Price Index]] (CPI) and the [[Personal consumption expenditures price index|Personal Consumption Expenditures Price Index]] (PCEPI) are two examples of broad price indices. The term inflation may also be used to describe the rising level of prices in a narrow set of assets, goods or services within the economy, such as [[commodity|commodities]], which include food, fuel, metals, [[financial asset]]s such as stocks and real estate, and service industries such as health care. The [[Reuters-CRB Index]] (CCI), the [[Producer Price Index]], and [[Employment Cost Index]] (ECI) are examples of narrow price indices used to measure price inflation in particular sectors of the economy. [[Core inflation]] is a measure of price fluctuations in a sub-set of the broad price index which excludes food and energy prices. The [[Federal Reserve Board]] uses the core inflation rate to measure overall inflation, eliminating food and energy prices to mitigate against short term price fluctuations that could distort estimates of future long term inflation trends in the general economy.<ref>{{citation |last=Kiley |first=Michael J. |title=Estimating the common trend rate of inflation for consumer prices and consumer prices excluding food and energy prices |work=Finance and Economic Discussion Series |publisher=Federal Reserve Board |publication-date=2008 |url=http://www.federalreserve.gov/Pubs/feds/2008/200838/200838pap.pdf }}</ref>
 +
 +
Related economic concepts include: [[deflation (economics)|deflation]], a fall in the general price level; [[disinflation]], a decrease in the rate of inflation; [[hyperinflation]], an out-of-control inflationary spiral; [[stagflation]], a combination of inflation, slow economic growth and rising unemployment; and [[reflation]], which is an attempt to raise the general level of prices to counteract deflationary pressures.
 +
 +
==Measures==
 +
[[Image:US Historical Inflation Ancient.svg|thumb|Annual inflation rates in the U.S., 1666-2004.]]
 +
Inflation is usually measured by calculating the [[inflation rate]] of a price index, usually the [[Consumer Price Index]].<ref>Robert Hall and John Taylor (1986), ''Macroeconomics: Theory, Performance, and Policy'', page 5. ISBN 039395398X.</ref><ref>Blanchard (2000), ''op. cit.''</ref><ref>Barro (1993), ''op. cit.''</ref> The Consumer Price Index measures prices of a selection of goods and services purchased by a "typical consumer".<ref>{{Harvnb|Mankiw|2002|p=22-32}}</ref> The inflation rate is the percentage rate of change of a price index over time.
 +
 +
For example, in January 2007, the U.S. Consumer Price Index was 202.416, and in January 2008 it was 211.080. The formula for calculating the annual percentage rate inflation in the CPI over the course of 2007 is
 +
:<math>\left(\frac{211.080-202.416}{202.416}\right)=4.28%</math>
 +
The resulting inflation rate for the CPI in this one year period is 4.28%, meaning the general level of prices for typical U.S. consumers rose by approximately four percent in 2007.<ref>The numbers reported here refer to the US Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers, All Items, series CPIAUCNS, from base level 100 in base year 1982. They were downloaded from the [http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/CPIAUCNS?cid=9 FRED database] at the [[Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis]] on August 8, 2008.</ref>
 +
 +
Other widely used price indices for calculating price inflation include the following:
 +
*'''[[Cost-of-living index|Cost-of-living indices]]''' (COLI) are indices similar to the CPI which are often used to adjust fixed incomes and contractual incomes to maintain the [[real versus nominal value|real value]] of those incomes.
 +
*'''[[Producer price index|Producer price indices]]''' (PPIs) which measures average changes in prices received by domestic producers for their output. This differs from the CPI in that price subsidization, profits, and taxes may cause the amount received by the producer to differ from what the consumer paid. There is also typically a delay between an increase in the PPI and any eventual increase in the CPI. Producer price index measures the pressure being put on producers by the costs of their raw materials. This could be "passed on" to consumers, or it could be absorbed by profits, or offset by increasing productivity. In India and the United States, an earlier version of the PPI was called the [[Wholesale price index|Wholesale Price Index]].
 +
*'''[[Commodity price index|Commodity price indices]]''', which measure the price of a selection of commodities. In the present commodity price indices are weighted by the relative importance of the components to the "all in" cost of an employee.
 +
*'''[[Core inflation|Core price indices]]''': because food and oil prices can change quickly due to changes in supply and demand conditions in the food and oil markets, it can be difficult to detect the long run trend in price levels when those prices are included. Therefore most [[List of national and international statistical services|statistical agencies]] also report a measure of 'core inflation', which removes the most volatile components (such as food and oil) from a broad price index like the CPI. Because core inflation is less affected by short run supply and demand conditions in specific markets, [[central bank]]s rely on it to better measure the inflationary impact of current [[monetary policy]].
 +
 +
Other common measures of inflation are:
 +
*'''[[GDP deflator]]''' is a measure of the price of all the goods and services included in [[Gross Domestic Product]] (GDP). The US Commerce Department publishes a deflator series for US GDP, defined as its nominal GDP measure divided by its real GDP measure.
 +
*'''Regional inflation''' The Bureau of Labor Statistics breaks down CPI-U calculations down to different regions of the US.
 +
*'''Historical inflation''' Before collecting consistent econometric data became standard for governments, and for the purpose of comparing absolute, rather than relative standards of living, various economists have calculated imputed inflation figures. Most inflation data before the early 20th century is imputed based on the known costs of goods, rather than compiled at the time. It is also used to adjust for the differences in real standard of living for the presence of technology.
 +
*'''[[Assets inflation|Asset price inflation]]''' is an undue increase in the prices of real or financial assets, such as [[stock]] (equity) and [[real estate]]. While there is no widely-accepted index of this type, some central bankers have suggested that it would be better to aim at stabilizing a wider general price level inflation measure that includes some asset prices, instead of stabilizing CPI or core inflation only. The reason is that by raising interest rates when stock prices or real estate prices rise, and lowering them when these asset prices fall, central banks might be more successful in avoiding [[economic bubble|bubbles]] and crashes in asset prices.{{Dubious|date=November 2008}}
 +
 +
===Issues in measuring===
 +
Measuring inflation in an economy requires objective means of differentiating changes in nominal prices on a common set of goods and services, and distinguishing them from those price shifts resulting from changes in value such as volume, quality, or performance. For example, if the price of a 10&nbsp;oz. can of corn changes from $0.90 to $1.00 over the course of a year, with no change in quality, then this price difference represents inflation. This single price change would not, however, represent general inflation in an overall economy. To measure overall inflation, the price change of a large "basket" of representative goods and services is measured. This is the purpose of a [[price index]], which is the combined price of a "basket" of many goods and services. The combined price is the sum of the weighted average prices of items in the "basket". A weighted price is calculated by multiplying the unit price of an item to the number of those items the average consumer purchases. Weighted pricing is a necessary means to measuring the impact of individual unit price changes on the economy's overall inflation. The Consumer Price Index, for example, uses data collected by surveying households to determine what proportion of the typical consumer's overall spending is spent on specific goods and services, and weights the average prices of those items accordingly. Those weighted average prices are combined to calculate the overall price. To better relate price changes over time, indexes typically choose a "base year" price and assign it a value of 100. Index prices in subsequent years are then expressed in relation to the base year price.<ref name=Taylor/>
 +
 +
Inflation measures are often modified over time, either for the relative weight of goods in the basket, or in the way in which goods and services from the present are compared with goods and services from the past. Adjustments are necessary over time because the types of goods and services purchased by 'typical consumers' changes over time. New products may be introduced, older products disappear, the quality of existing products may change, and consumer preferences can shift. Both the sorts of goods and services which are included in the "basket" and the weighted price used in inflation measures will be changed over time in order to keep pace with the changing marketplace.
 +
 +
Inflation numbers are often [[seasonally adjusted]] in order to differentiate expected cyclical cost shifts. For example, home heating costs are expected to rise in colder months, and seasonal adjustments are often used when measuring for inflation to compensate for cyclical spikes in energy or fuel demand. Inflation numbers may be averaged or otherwise subjected to statistical techniques in order to remove [[statistical noise]] and [[Volatility (finance)|volatility]] of individual prices.
 +
 +
When looking at inflation economic institutions may focus only on certain kinds of prices, or ''special indices'', such as the [[core inflation|core inflation index]] which is used by central banks to formulate [[monetary policy]].
  
 
==Controlling inflation==
 
==Controlling inflation==

Revisão das 19h40min de 2 de dezembro de 2008

<metadesc content="Inflação é o aumento generalizado do nível de preços dos bens e serviços de uma economia, durante um período de tempo." />

Taxas de inflação no mundo em 2007.

Em economia, inflação é o aumento generalizado do nível de preços dos bens e serviços de uma economia, durante um período de tempo.<ref>Burda, Michael; Wyplosz, Charles (1997): p. 579 (Glossary) - Ver também: Blanchard, Olivier (2000): Glossary - Barro, Robert (1993): Glossary. - Abel, Andrew; Bernanke, Ben (1994): Glossary</ref> Quando o nível geral dos preços aumenta, cada unidade da moeda compra menos bens e serviços. A principal medida da inflação é a taxa de inflação, isto é, a percentagem de variação de um índice de preços no tempo.<ref>Mankiw, N. Gregory (2002): pp 22-32</ref>

O termo "inflação" já foi usado para referir aumentos na oferta de moeda (money supply)—a actualmente designada inflação monetária. No entanto, debates económicos sobre a relação entre a oferta de moeda e os níveis dos preços conduziram ao significado actual de "inflação dos preços".<ref name="Bryan">Michael F. Bryan, On the Origin and Evolution of the Word 'Inflation'</ref> A inflação também pode ser descrita como um declínio no valor real da moeda—uma redução do poder de compra.<ref>Why price stability? (em inglês), Central Bank of Iceland</ref>

A inflação pode ter efeitos adversos na economia. Por exemplo, incerteza acerca da inflação futura pode desencorajar o investimento e a poupança. A inflação pode aumentar a diferença no rendimento entre aqueles com rendimentos fixos e aqueles com rendimentos variáveis. Uma inflação elevada pode causar escassez de bens porque os consumidores os açambarcam por receio de que os seus preços venham a aumentar.

Os economistas concordam em geral que taxas de inflação elevadas e hiperinflação são causadas por um crescimento excessivo da oferta de moeda.<ref>Barro, Robert; Grilli, Vittorio (1994): Cap. 8, p. 139, Fig. 8.1</ref> O consenso é menor sobre que factores determinam taxas de inflação moderadas. Uma inflação moderada ou reduzida pode ser atribuída a flutuações na procura real de bens e serviços, a mudanças na oferta disponível como acontece durante períodos de escassez, e também ao crescimento da oferta de moeda. O ponto de vista que reúne consenso é o de que um período sustentado de inflação é causado quando a oferta de moeda aumenta mais rapidamente do que o aumento da produtividade na economia.<ref>Mankiw, N. Gregory (2002): pp 81-107</ref><ref>Abel, Andrew; Bernanke, Ben (2005): pp 266-269</ref>

A tarefa de manter uma taxa de inflação reduzida é normalmente atribuída a autoridades monetárias que estabelecem a política monetária. Actualmente, as autoridades monetárias são em geral bancos centrais que controlam a dimensão da oferta de moeda estabelecendo taxas directoras, através de operações de mercado aberto, e determinando as exigências de reservas bancárias.<ref>Taylor, Timothy (2008)</ref>

Origens

Originalmente, o termo inflação referia-se à degradação (debasement) da moeda. Quando o ouro era usado como moeda, as moedas de ouro podiam ser recolhidas pelo governo (ou rei ou governante de uma região), derretidas, misturadas com outros metais como prata, cobre ou chumbo, e emitidas novamente ao mesmo valor nominal. Ao misturar o ouro com outros metais, o governo podia aumentar o número total de moedas emitidas sem aumentar a quantidade de ouro usada para criá-las. Quando o custo de cada moeda é reduzido desta forma, o governo lucra pelo aumento da senhoriagem.<ref>Annual Report (2006), Royal Canadian Mint, p. 4</ref> Esta prática aumentava a oferta de moeda mas, ao mesmo tempo, reduzia o valor relativo de cada moeda. Porque o valor relativo das moedas diminuia, os consumidores necessitavam de mais moedas para adquirir os mesmos bens e serviços. Estes bens e serviços aumentam de preço à medida que o valor de cada moeda é reduzido.<ref>Frank Shostak, "Commodity Prices and Inflation: What's the connection", Mises Institute</ref>

Já no século XIX, os economistas categorizavam três factores distintos que causam a subida ou descida de preços: uma alteração no valor de um bem ou no seu custo em recursos, uma alteração no "preço do dinheiro" o que nessa altura era normalmente uma flutuação no conteúdo metálico da moeda, e a "depreciação da moeda" resultante de um aumento na oferta de moeda em relação à quantidade de metal conversível que a suportava. Na sequência da proliferação de notas bancárias privadas impressas durante a Guerra Civil Americana, o termo "inflação" começou a aparecer como referência directa à "depreciação da moeda", que ocorreu à medida que a quantidade de notas bancárias conversíveis excedia a quantidade de metal disponível para a sua conversão. O termo inflação referia-se então à desvalorização da moeda e não ao aumento de preço dos bens.<ref name="Bryan" />

Esta relação entre a oferta excessiva de notas bancárias e a resultante depreciação do seu valor foi notada pelos primeiros economistas clássicos, como David Hume e David Ricardo, que viriam a examinar e debater o efeito que a desvalorização da moeda (mais tarde designada inflação monetária) tem no preço dos bens (mais tarde designada inflação dos preços).<ref>Blaug, Mark (1997): "...this was the cause of inflation, or, to use the language of the day, 'the depreciation of banknotes.'" (pg. 128)</ref>

Causas

Muita da literatura económica concerne a questão do que é que causa a inflação e qual é o efeito que esta tem. Há várias escolas de pensamento sobre as causas da inflação. A maioria pode ser dividida em duas grandes áreas: teorias qualitativas e teorias quantitativas. Muitas teorias combinam ambas as áreas. A teoria qualitativa da inflação tem por base a expectativa do vendedor, ao aceitar moeda, de que será capaz de trocar essa moeda mais tarde por bens que lhe interessem como comprador. A teoria quantitativa da inflação assenta na equação da oferta de moeda, da sua velocidade e das trocas de moeda. Adam Smith e David Hume propuseram uma teoria quantitativa da inflação para o dinheiro e uma teoria qualitativa da inflação para a produção.

Existe um consenso generalizado entre os economistas de que, a longo prazo, a inflação é essencialmente um fenómeno monetário. <ref>Greenspan, Alan (20 Jul 2004). Federal Reserve Board's semiannual Monetary Policy Report to the Congress (em inglês). The Federal Reserve Board.</ref> <ref>Bernanke, Ben S. (23 Jul 2003). An Unwelcome Fall in Inflation? (em inglês). The Federal Reserve Board.</ref> <ref>Trichet, Jean-Claude (1 Jul 2004). Introductory statement to the press conference (em inglês). Banco Central Europeu.</ref> No entanto, a curto e médio prazo, pode ser afectada por pressões da oferta e da procura na economia, e influenciada pela elasticidade relativa dos salários, preços e taxas de juro. Uma questão central no debate entre as escolas monetarista e Keynesiana é se os efeitos de curto-prazo duram o suficiente para serem importantes. No monetarismo os preços e salários ajustam-se com rapidez suficiente para tornar os restantes factores um mero comportamento marginal da linha geral de tendência. Na perspectiva Keynesiana, os preços e salários ajustam-se a taxas diferentes, e estas diferenças têm efeitos suficientes no output real para serem de "longo-prazo" na perspectiva das pessoas numa economia.


Ver também

Notas

<references />

Referências

  • Barro, Robert (1993). Macroeconomics, 4th ed. (em inglês).
  • Abel, Andrew; Bernanke, Ben (2005). Macroeconomics, 5th ed. (em inglês), Pearson.